Darshanas

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The Six Orthodox Viewpoints: Darshanas

Darshanas (viewpoints) are the six systems of orthodox Indian philosophy, also referred to as Classical Hinduism. These six schools recognize the authority of the Vedas where as non-Vedic schools, such as Buddhism and Jainism, do not. Yoga is one of the darshanas.

Samkhya
600 BCE

Samkhya, literally “enumeration”, was founded by the sage Kapila, who lived around 600 BCE. The word enumerate is defined as to describe or to establish the number of things one by one.  In the west, the term to describe the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being is called "ontology". This darshana’s principles are closely associated with Yoga and the body of knowledge that both share and are often referred to as Samkhya-Yoga. However, whereas the followers of Samkhya use discriminative knowledge or discernment (viveka) as a means to liberation, the followers of Yoga use primarily meditation and contemplation. The doctrine of Samkhya was refined and collated into the seminal work of Ishvara Krishna around 200 CE named Samhkya Karika.

At the heart of Samkhya is the concept of dualism as two distinct principles, namely purusha (spirit or consciousness) and prakriti (nature or matter). Purusha is known as the transcendental Self or pure consciousness.  Its attributes are absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable and beyond any experience, words, or explanation.  Prakriti is known as nature or matter and its attributes are inert, temporary, and unconscious.

Prakriti is taught as a vast composite or multidemensional structure created by the interplay of three primary forces or gunas. Guna literally means "strand" but has varied connotations and meanings depending on context. Essentially, the gunas are similar to the elementary particles of physics, which underlie the irreducible and ultimate building blocks of the universe. The three gunas are sattva (goodness), rajas (passion), and tamas (ignorance). The German scholar, Max Muller, states "we can best explain them by the general idea of two opposites and the middle term between them, or as Hegel’s thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, these being manifested in nature by light, darkness, and mist; in morals by good, bad, and indifferent, with many applications and modifications."(1) In the transcendental state of nature, the gunas exist in balance. This state is termed mula-prakriti, from which the material world arises.

The first evolute of prakriti is mahat literally meaning the "great one" or "great principle" and is described as pure potentiality.  Mahat gives rise to buddhi which stands for higher wisdom or intelligence and is considered unconscious needing the light of purushu for its illumination.   Out of mahat emerges the second evolute of prakriti or ahamkara, the I-consciouness or the principle of individuation and therefore the distinction between subject and object. This causes the appearance of the lower mind or manas, and the five cognitive senses and the five conative senses. Cognition is defined as the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses and as a result, perception, sensation, notion or intuition arises. The five cognitive senses or jnana-indriyas which evolve from sattva are sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. Conation is defined as the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or will to perform an action; volition. The five conative senses or karma-indriyas which evolve from rajas are speech (voice), action (arms), movement (legs), excretion (anus), and reproduction (genitals). Also arising from ahamkara is the five subtle essences which evolve from tamas and underly the sensory capacties are the mahabhutas or great elements which are earth, water, fire, air, and ether.

Though no formal schools of Samkhya exist today, its impact has greatly influenced the other five schools of Indian thought and the development of Hinduism itself. Samkhya is considered the oldest of all darshanas.

Yoga

500-200 BCE

The system of Yoga (”Union”) is generally considered to have arisen from Samkhya philosophy. Yoga added the concept of Ishvara, a personal God, and a practical system of personal development. Around 200 BC, the sage Patanjali compiled all the information on yoga that had arisen prior in the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita and codified it into 194 very concise strings of thought called sutras. The collection of these thoughts is called the Yoga Sutra.

Yoga is dualist in its philosophy as it teaches that purusha (spirit) is separate from prakriti (nature). It aims to realize the true Self (Atman) and unite it with the greater universal Spirit (Brahman). The practice of yoga includes eight limbs: yama (restraints), niyama (observances), asana (postures), pranayama (control of life force), pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (complete absorption). The limbs are outlined in depth under Classical Yoga. Many of the other darshanas also include the practical application of Yoga.

Vedanta (also referred to as Uttara Mimamsa)

Vedanta (”Veda’s End”) evolved from the later portions of the Vedas, as well as, the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana (written between 500 BC and 200 BC). It stresses non-dualism and the unity of all life. Vedanta emphasizes that the reality of the Self is part of a greater Absolute Reality and all that is not the Self is unreality or illusion. In other words, we are all Divine, but we must remove ignorance to realize this divinity. The path to Self-realization is through knowledge, devotion and the practice of ethical virtues.

Vedanta is monotheistic, yet recognizes that people of different faiths worship God in different forms. Noted in the Rig Veda is the hymn, “Ekam sad; vipra bahudha vadanti,” which translates as “Truth is One; Sages call it variously.” Vedanta may also be referred to as Uttara Mimasma (”Later Inquiry”)

Two well-known followers of Vedanta were Sri Ramakrishna (1836 – 1886 AD), considered a modern day saint, and his disciple, Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902 AD). Ramakrishna experienced many deep, trance-like states of spiritual consciousness. He spread the knowledge he gained through these divine experiences to many throughout India. After his death, his prolific student Swami Vivekananda brought the teachings of his guru to the Western World. Serving as Ambassador of India, the charismatic Swami Vivekananda spoke to a large gathering of world religious leaders at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. He appealed for a better understanding between India’s spiritual tradition and the beliefs of the West, as well as, a healthy synthesis of both. His speech was extremely well received and he went on to spread his message for several more years, until his death at the age of 39. Swami Vivekananda not only had broad influence in America and England, he is credited with reawakening the national consciousness of India.

Selected Quotations from Swami Vivekanada:

“The varieties of religious belief are an advantage, since all faiths are good, so far as they encourage us to lead a religious life. The more sects there are, the more opportunities there are for making a successful appeal to the divine instinct in all of us.”

“The essence of Vedanta is that there is but one Being and that every soul is that Being in full, not a part of that Being.”

“It is impossible to find God outside of ourselves. Our own souls contribute all of the divinity that is outside of us. We are the greatest temple. The objectification is only a faint imitation of what we see within ourselves.”

Purva Mimamsa

Purva Mimamsa (”Early Inquiry”) is based upon the Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini written around 250 BC. It is the interpretation of the Vedas that emphasizes the need for rituals in our outer life to keep us connected to the order of the Universe. All six schools of thought use rituals to enhance their teachings.

Nyaya

Nyaya (”Rule”) is based upon the Nyaya Sutra that was written by Gautoma around 400 BC. The significance of this school of thought is in its methodology. Followers believe that one needs to use logic in one’s spiritual path and base opinions on valid sources of information. To live rightly, one must first determine what is right knowledge.

Vaishesika

Vaishesika (”Distinctionism”) is based upon the theory originally proposed by the sage Kanada who lived around 600-500 BCE. This system proposed that atoms make up everything in the universe and that the function of these atoms is directed by the will of a greater power. Both systems being very analytical, this school of thought eventually merged with Nyaya.

This darshana states that liberation can be attained through a thorough understanding of the six primary categories of existence. These are…

1. Substance or dravya which has nine components – earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, mind (manas), and Self (atman).
2. Quality or guna which here are composed of 23 types including color, sensory perceptions, magnitude, etc.
3. Action or karma
4. the Universal or samanya
5. the Particular or vishesha
6. Inherence or samavaya which refers to the necessary logical relationship between wholes and parts

Study Guide Questions and Personal Reflections:

1. Why are the six darshanas called “Classical” Hinduism?
2. What darshana did Yoga arise from and what philosophy are the two darshanas based upon?
3. What is the key philosophical difference between Yoga and Vedanta?

Vocabulary

• Sanatana Dharma
• Ishvara
• darshana
• Samkhya
• purusha
• prakriti
• Yoga
• Vedanta
• Buddha

Footnotes

(1)  M. Muller, The six Systems of Indian Philosophy (New York: Longmans Green, 1916), p. 263

Resources

Comparsion of Greek and Indian Cosmology by Subhash Kak, Louisiana State University, 2007